The Ap History Essay Samples Diaries

<h1> The Ap History Essay Samples Diaries </h1> <h2> Vital Pieces of 2001 Ap History Essay Samples</h2> <p>Formulate your own presumption before you inspect the records. So you must administer your own program, preemptively envisioning and moderating the harm of a potential warning. The general field of land given to these organizations would rise to nearly precisely the same region as the entire territory of Texas. You have to realize what kind of proof you should find in the archives or information you have, reliant on the brief inquiry. </p> <p>Instead, you might want to break down the exposition and guarantee your case is bolstered. Tie each guarantee you make to a touch of proof to ensure the absolute best article conceivable. The proof is a critical segment of your article. </p> <p>It ought to envelop your entire paper in just a solitary sentence. Endeavor to make balance between your exposition point and the individual that you are citing. 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Composing a sublime structure requests cautious intending to mastermind complex recommendations to make a justifiable importance. The papers test your composing capacity in a wide range of modes and for a scope of purposes. This sort of paper needs a decent structure and excellent help. </p> <p>The o utright most proficient AP English Language study program will join various assets and gadgets. Stories without suitable attribution will be dismissed. AP Language and Composition course is an enormous arrangement, and your chief objective is to obviously demonstrate your ability to make not too bad investigation with a perfect structure and syntax lists. The AP English Language and Composition Exam is used by schools to assess your ability to accomplish school level work. </p> <h2>Lies You've Been Told About 2001 Ap History Essay Samples </h2> <p>The test is quite often a moving circumstance to adapt to. These answers must be based from your own perspective, not others. 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The Women's Rights Movement was among the developments that picked up force at this time. Laws began to pass that necessary a particular measure of instruction to all residents, regardless of class or financial status. </p> <p>Employ t he utilization of an AP English Language survey book that will enable you to get ready. Stories without an indispensable picture will be dismissed. Each suitable thing you use is brilliant and accurately what the AP perusers need to get. Likewise investigate her audit of the perfect AP US History textbooks!</p>

Comparison High School and College Essay - How to Write an Interesting Comparison High School and College Essay

Comparison High School and College Essay - How to Write an Interesting Comparison High School and College EssayA comparison high school and college essay can be a real challenge to write. It requires you to think about your reasons for choosing your topic, which is difficult because these subjects are very diverse.Just think about your college life. Do you spend most of your time studying? If so, you must be grateful that you did not attend college in high school.I can still remember when I was a student in high school and how much better it was for me in college. And this time I went to college after all! We all wish we could live this time so that we can study hard from class and see how great our parents were as parents.What can you do in order to make this an easy task for yourself? One thing is to analyze what you really want to say about your topic. You will need to find out if you want to explain the reasons why you chose this subject or you want to just go in your heart and w rite about the subject.After that, you need to start to think about how you will present the content of your essay. Write about something that really appeals to you will find it easier to express your feelings in your writing.In order to help you with this, make sure you have a good outline for your essay. Have some words that are important in order to organize your thoughts. There are many ways to use outlines; here is one that I am using now.The outline you will make is composed of five sections. Each section should be represented by a different line of text and each paragraph should consist of three lines.This organization technique is something that I used to organize my thoughts in a structured way. You might also want to follow this example if you want to give your essay a well-organized look. Think about it!

Writing Tips For First Person Essay Topics

Writing Tips For First Person Essay TopicsFirst person essay topics are pretty easy to come up with if you get a whole bunch of ideas rolling in. No one should be turned off by the fact that you are writing for the first person. Just make sure that you do not have a first person viewpoint and never include what is happening to you in any way.One thing that could be difficult to work out is the outline. First person essays often end up being a stream of consciousness story or a series of personal thoughts. You need to decide what kind of information you would like to include in your essay. You may choose to describe what it is like for you to look at a blog post or you might want to write a love letter or just ask yourself 'What is it like to live with my parents?'There are some options you can use to help you come up with good first person essay topics. The first is to simply throw out an idea that you find on the internet. Or maybe your roommate likes to check out dating web sites. Be creative and use your imagination and that is the easiest way to do first person essay topics.The next option is to simply play around with a topic that you are passionate about. Write about something that you know you are passionate about. You can then let that passion show in your essay when you use the first person perspective.The third option is to use a theme. Use a theme to represent a certain kind of person or situation. You may choose to use some of the other topics mentioned above and place them in a theme so that you can come up with many different things to talk about.The great thing about using the first person perspective is that you can talk about almost anything. You just have to find the topic that is going to come closest to you. Be realistic and try to think of something that would feel real to you, not something that makes you think that you're in some sort of fiction novel.If you decide to go with the first person essay topics, make sure that you are as honest as possible. Even if you just play around with ideas for a while, the more ideas you have the better chance you have of coming up with something fresh and new.

Critique of the Behavioral Study of Obedience - 593 Words

Critique of the Behavioral Study of Obedience Dr. Stanley Milgram was an American Social Psychologist who conducted the Behavioral Study of Obedience in 1963. Dr. Milgram conducted the study to assess the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience. The subjects of the study were recruited from various occupations including, but not limited to, laborers and engineers. Dr. Milgram hoped to learn about the circumstances in which people would carry out the commands of authority figure and when will they refuse to obey (citation). The research methods used in the Behavioral Study of Obedience were experiments and observation. The results of the experiment concluded that the participants were obedient to the orders and conformed to their assigned â€Å"role† quickly and without question. The research methods used in the study conducted by Dr. Milgram were experiment and observation. The subjects of the study were recruiting using a newspaper advertisement and direct mail solicitation. The participants believed they were going to take part in a study of memory and learning at Yale University. There were a total of 40 male participants between the age of 20 and 50. The participants would act as teachers under direction of an experimenter and would be instructed to deliver shocks to their students if they answered a question wrong. The shocks were delivered from a machine that ranged from 15 volts to 450 volts. The experimenter was dressed in a technician coatShow MoreRelatedCritique of Stanley Milgram’s â€Å"Behavioral Study of Obedience†905 Words   |  4 PagesA Critique of Stanley Milgram’s â€Å"Behavioral Study of Obedience† Stanley MIlgram is a Yale University social psychologist who wrote â€Å"Behavioral Study of Obedience†, an article which granted him many awards and is now considered a landmark. In this piece, he evaluates the extent to which a participant is willing to conform to an authority figure who commands him to execute acts that conflict with his moral beliefs. Milgram discovers that the majority of participants do obey to authority. InRead MoreInvestigating The Nature Of Obedience1678 Words   |  7 Pages Investigating the Nature of Obedience Stanley Milgram managed to conduct the experiment that revealed the distinct features of the members of our society. He questioned how millions of ordinary people in Germany could obey the immoral commands of the Nazi government and provided the study exploring the mechanisms of human obedience to authorities. Though Milgram’s experiment has provoked a huge amount of criticism, the analysis of internal and external validityRead MoreBehavioral Study Of Obedience By Stanley Milgram1053 Words   |  5 Pages â€Å"Behavioral Study of Obedience† by Stanley Milgram (1963) Stanley Milgram Yale University Group 1: Wasis Ali, Christopher Okpala, Michelle Walden, Estefany Majano General Psychology 1010 Ms. Thompson Spring Semester, March 17, 2014 Introduction In 1961, The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology published an article by Stanley Milgram, a researcher at Yale University, and his study testing obedience towards political influence vs towards morals and values taught from an early ageRead MoreSocial Identity Theory And Fees Must Fall Protests Essay1257 Words   |  6 Pagesfollowing the â€Å"trend† of the group. If majority of the group wants to do something, but one individual does not, the individual will go along with the group in order to protect identity as a member of the group. The #feesmustfall protests highlight this obedience exceptionally well. When students started protesting for free Tertiary education, students from all over the country engaged in action. This unifying movement allowed for students to join together creating an in-group (the students) and an out-groupRead MoreThe Theory Of Psychology And Psychology859 Words   |  4 PagesThroughout long history of psychology, there are many brilliant and remarkable psychologists who grew psychology longing as 21st century, today. They have contributed many theories, ideas, and experiments that made study of human mind and behavior much more noble and interesting. As psychology grow older and older, there are many different types of branches that were created, such as psychoanalysis, behavior, cognitive, evolutionary, and developmental. Each branches have changed way society worksRead MoreKohlberg s Theory Of Moral Development1450 Words   |  6 Pages â€Å"Kohlberg developed six stage theory of moral development, and then he group them six into three. Which are higher-order levels of development: Level 1- Pre- Conventional morality which have two stageies 1- obedience and punishment, 2- Individual interest: behavior driven by self-interest and rewards. Level 2- Conventional morality two stageies are 1- interpersonal: behavior driven by social approval, 2- Authority: behavior driven by obeying authority: behavior driven by obe ying authority and conformingRead MoreChristian /Counseling2553 Words   |  11 Pagesis a true sign of maturity and sincerity. In the text Dr. Crabb stated, â€Å"A counselor must help the client to move over the pathway of obedience. Which he calls the OVER goal, the goal is to help the client respond biblically to problem circumstances, to â€Å"move over. Dr. Crabb also noted, â€Å"The change must be not only external obedience, but also an inward newness, a renewed way of thinking and perceiving, a changed set of goals, a transformed personality called the UP goal† (Crabb,Read MoreDiana Baumrind2963 Words   |  12 Pagesresearch to families and therapy groups. By 1960 Baumrind was a clinical and developmental psychologist at the Institute of Human Development at the University of California, Berkeley. She is well known for her research on parenting styles and for her critique of deception in psychological research. Baumrind is a recipient of the G. Stanley Hall Award and an NIMH Research Scientist Award. Baumrind work on research design, socialization, moral development, and profe ssional ethics is unified by her beliedRead MoreThe Impact Of Parenting Styles On A Child s Development2645 Words   |  11 Pagesintrigued me and prompted my self reflection of how my immigrant parents parenting practices affected my development. From my experience, I believe immigrant parents are more likely to display authoritarian versus authoritative parenting styles. â€Å"Studies have shown that parents of individualistic cultures (i.e. western cultures) are more likely to be authoritative, whereas parents of collectivistic cultures (i.e. non-western cultures, including Asian, African, and Hispanic) that have immigrated toRead MoreCollegiality: Attribute, Theory or Impossibility?3600 Words   |  15 PagesTheory? 4 Introduction 4 Collegiality in the Professional Arena 5 Collegiality and Academia 5 Collegiality and the Medical Profession 6 Collegiality and the World of Law 7 Collegiality vs. Classic Management Theory 8 Collegiality and Behavioral Theory 8 Collegiality and Bureaucratic Theory 9 Discussion 10 Conclusion 13 References 17 Collegiality – Attribute or Theory? Introduction Collegiality is both a professional attribute and a management theory. While defining collegiality

Logic Function and Boolean Algebra Report

Questions: 1. Explain why modern machines consist of multiple levels of virtual machines. Why not just have two levels, the digital logic level and the high-language programming level? 2. Given a (very) tiny computer that has a word size of 6 bits, what are the smallest negative numbers and the largest positive numbers that this computer can represent in each of the following representations? a. Signed magnitudeb. One's complementc. Two's complement3. Convert the followings: a. AC1216 to binary b. 10710 to 8-bit 2s Complement c. ********012 to Hexadecimal d. ********2 (8-bit 2s complement representation) to decimal 4. A Computer uses IEEE-754 format to represent floating points. What value (in decimal) the computer represents if the floating point is represented using the following binary digits: 110000010101000000000000000000005. Charles Sturt University (CSU) academic director want to hire a lecture in Sydney Study Center. The applicant has worked in three universities before; University of N ew South Wales (UNSW), Macquarie University, and Sydney University. Before he will hire him, he must get input from these three universities. After few weeks of receiving feedback from all three, he has come to the following conclusions: Hire if two of them say yes and one says no. Hire if all of them say yes. Don't hire otherwise.Construct a truth table and find the minimized Boolean function to implement the logic telling the director when to hire. Draw a circuit diagram for the Boolean function.6. Complete the truth table for the following sequential circuit: Answers: 1. In virtual system the original thing is not used. Only the image of the original this is used which looks like original to the user. There are so many places where the virtual environment is being used like Server, network, storage etc. There are so many techniques now a days which are being used by IT firms e.g. virtual tools, virtual machines etc. By using Virtual machines, IT firms create their virtual data centre which can be managed centrally by all branches of the IT firms in very low of budget. The virtualization can be done of so many things like server, storage devices; CPU etc. the most commonly used types of virtualization are- Process level, System Level and OS virtualization. Applications become larger and become complicated by using different types of technologies. Quality and usability attributes cannot be measured in the physical environment. That is why, virtual architecture helps to increase the quality and usability attributes. There may be many changes at all stages in the physical environment which is not easy to change at all places. Virtual environment helps in resolving these types of issues. Virtual environment is very beneficial in the time essential fields. For example when the time is very less and very critical, the virtual environment is very beneficial in those cases. It is very beneficial from the business point of view. E.g. in the banking system, the virtual takes few minutes setup while the traditional physical environment takes hours in setup. So the Virtual environment saves the time and money both. Virtual environment is very cost effective also. It saves the cost of the physical setup. Virtual environment minimizes the geographical limitation. The business can be easily connected with the consumers on the internet throughout the world. There is no problem of the location. The consumer can access the system from anywhere in the world. The consumer does not have to go outside from the home to buy the products. The competitive environment of any organization for virtual systems can be analysed by PEST and SWOT analysis very efficiently. The SWOT analysis is helpful to understand the market position of the company and helpful to implement future direction and the new proposed system. While the PEST analysis is used to evaluate external factors. The SWOT analysis measures the business unit and PEST analysis measures the trends and changes in the market. The SWET analysis analyse the following terms- Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats. While the PEST analysis analyse the external factors which can affect the project like- Political Factors, Economic Factors, Social Factors and Technological Factors. The levels of modern virtual are more than digital logic and high language programming level; to secure the IT environment. These things are implemented by the modern virtual machines- Partitioning Hardware Independence Encapsulation Isolation If all the above four things get implemented in the IT environment, the disaster recovery would be very easily without disturbing any other unrelated component and the transaction will run without any trouble. The disaster recovery is very costly in the earlier environment or earlier virtual machines but in modern virtual machines which contain more levels, there are very easy, time saving and low budget disaster recovery techniques. Earlier it took 40 hours approximately while in modern virtual environment, it takes 4 hours approximately. Therefore is helps in saving time and resource utilization for the current systems. It is the demand of today and is helping to the IT firms in a very huge manner. In physical environment there were so many steps had to be followed like Configure Hardware, Install OS, Configure OS, Install backup, Start automatic recovery etc. But in modern virtual machines, there is no need to follow up all the above steps. It is only because of more levels than digital logic and high language programming level. (Microsoft 2014) 2 a) Largest Positive and Smallest Negative numbers in Signed Magnitude- Largest Positive: 011111(31) Smallest Negative: 100000(31) 2 b) Largest Positive and Smallest Negative numbers in ones complement- Largest Positive: 0111112(31) Smallest Negative: 1000002(-31) Ones complement works as a negative number of any numbers in arithmetic. It is obtained by inverting the binary numbers bits. 2 c) Largest Positive and Smallest Negative numbers in twos complement- Largest Positive: 0111112(31) Smallest Negative: 1000002(-32) (Digilent Inc. 2014) Twos complement works as a mathematical operation on binary numbers and it represents the binary signed number also. It is widely used in the computer language that is why it is most important. 3 a) Convert AC1216to binary Convert AC12 hexadecimal to Binary To convert hexadecimal number into binary number transforms each number into binary form. 1010 1100 0001 0010 Hexadecimal is a positional number system which with base 16. It contains and uses 16 numbers; 0 to 9 and A to F. A, B, C, D, E, F is used for 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 respectively. 3 b) 10710to 8-bit 2s Complement First convert 107 to binary because the binary representation of -107 would be equal to the 2s complement of 107- -107 binary representation= 2s complement of 107 Binary representation of 107 107/2 = (53) + 1 53/2 = (26) + 1 26/2 = (13) + 0 13/2 = (6) + 1 6/2 = (3) + 0 3/2 = (1) + 1 = (0) + 1 =1101011 The binary number gets obtained from the decimal number by dividing the number by 2 and then collecting the remainder numbers. Ones complement of 1101011= 0010100 Twos complement of 1101011= 0010101 Ones complement works as a negative number of any numbers in arithmetic. It is obtained by inverting the binary numbers bits and Twos complement works as a mathematical operation on binary numbers and it represents the binary signed number also. It is widely used in the computer language that is why it is most important. Twos complement can be obtained by adding 1 digit in ones complement. 3 c) 11001101012to Hexadecimal Make the pairs of 4 digits for the octal representation =0011 0011 0101 =335 3 d) 100111102(8-bit 2s complement representation) to decimal 10011110 to Decimal 1*(2)p7+0*(2)p6+0*(2)p5+1*(2)p4+1*(2)p3+1*(2)p2 +1*(2)p1+0*(2)p0 =1*128+0*64+0*32+1*16+1*8+1*4+1*2+0*1 =128+0+0+16+8+4+2+0 =158 (Stack Exchange Inc. 2012) Binary number gets converted into decimal number by multiplying each binary digit by 2 raise to power, starting from 0 from the right hand side and then by adding all numbers. 4. A Computer uses IEEE-754 format to represent floating points. What value (in decimal) the computer represents if the floating point is represented using the following binary digits: 11000001010100000000000000000000 To convert 11000001010100000000000000000000 to decimal in the computer; which uses IEEE-754; following steps have to be followed- Step1 First split the binary number 11000001010100000000000000000000 into 1 + 8 + 23 bits- 1 10000010 10100000000000000000000 The sign bit is 1, therefore the number is negative. Another 8 bits 10000010 are exponent And another 23 bits 10100000000000000000000 are mantissa Step 2- Add the hidden bit to the mantissa- 1.10100000000000000000000 Step 3- Convert exponent (10000010) to decimal and then subtract 127 = 130 -127 =3 2**3 Step 4- Now renormalize the mantissa- = 1.10100000000000000000000 times 2**3 = (1+ 1*(2**-1)+1*(2**-3) ) times 2**3 = (1+0.5+0.125) times 2**3 =1.625 times 2**3 =13 As the sign is negative, the 11000001010100000000000000000000 in decimal would be -13.0. (S.Orley, J. Methews 2000) 5. Charles Sturt University (CSU)academic director want to hire a lecture in Sydney Study Center. The applicant has worked in three universities before; University of New South Wales (UNSW), Macquarie University, and Sydney University. Before he will hire him, he must get input from these three universities. After few weeks of receiving feedback from all three, he has come to the following conclusions: Hire if two of them say yes and one says no. Hire if all of them say yes. Don't hire otherwise. Construct a truth table and find the minimized Boolean function to implement the logic telling the director when to hire. Draw a circuit diagram for the Boolean function. A, B and C is the input value and X is the result based upon the input conditions. If any of the two inputs are positive, the output result will also be positive and if all the three inputs are positive, the result will be positive but if any two of the inputs are negative the result will be negative. The candidate will be selected for the post of lecturer only if the result is positive; if at least two inputs are yes. The truth table is a mathematical table which is used in Boolean algebra logics and functions. It helps to understand typical logics easily. It helps to understand gates logics. Following truth table is describing the criteria to hire the applicant- A B C X 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 ABC=1 0 1 1 1 ABC=1 1 0 1 1 ABC=1 1 1 1 1 ABC=1 Therefore the output in the form of Boolean function would be- Output= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC But the function is not minimized; following is the minimized function- = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC = BC (A+A) + ABC + ABC =BC (1) + ABC + ABC =BC + ABC + ABC =B (C+ AC) + ABC =B (C + A) + ABC =BC + BA + ABC =BC + A (B + BC) =BC + A (B + C) =BC + AB + AC =AB + BC + AC (R.M. Dansereau, n.d) Now this is the minimized Boolean function for the truth table to appoint the applicant. Circuit diagram for the above minimized function is as follows- 6. Truth Table The truth table is a mathematical table which is used in Boolean algebra logics and functions. It helps to understand typical logics easily. It helps to understand gates logics. It shows the relationship between input and output of logic gates. Input of logic gates get displayed in left side columns and output get displayed on right side columns. The minimal Boolean function can be found with the help of truth table. Following example shows the truth table- A, B and C is the input value and X is the result based upon the input conditions. If any of the two inputs are positive, the output result will also be positive and if all the three inputs are positive, the result will be positive but if any two of the inputs are negative the result will be negative. A B C X 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 Following is the truth table for the given circuit- Next State A B X A B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 References [1] Stack Exchange Inc. 2012, Mathematics, Viewed on 28th Jan 2015 https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/44866/conversion-from-binary-fraction-to-octal [2] R.M. Dansereau (n.d), Chapter III Boolean Algebra, Viewed on 28th Jan 2015 https://users.ece.gatech.edu/dva/ece2030/files/lec3.pdf [3] Microsoft 2014, Virtual Machine Architecture, Viewed on 28th Jan 2015 https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc708365(v=ws.10).aspx [4] S.Orley, J. Methews 2000, A Quick Summary of IEEE 754 Notation, Viewed on 28th Jan 2015 https://class.ece.iastate.edu/arun/Cpre305/ieee754/homepage.html [5] Digilent Inc. 2014, Negative Binary Numbers, Viewed on 28th Jan 2015 https://learn.digilentinc.com/Documents/280

Absolute Beginner Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns

Absolute Beginner Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns Your learners have now learned some basic vocabulary, simple positive and negative statements with to be, as well as questions. Now you can introduce the possessive adjectives my, your, his, and her. It is best to stay away from its at this point. You can work on getting students to know each other by using their names for this exercise, before going on to objects. Teacher: (Model a question to yourself changing places in the room, or changing your voice to indicate that you are modeling. ) Is your name Ken? Yes, my name is Ken. (stress your and my - repeat a few times) Teacher: Is your name Ken? (ask a student) Student(s): No, my name is Paolo. Continue this exercise around the room with each of the students. If a student makes a mistake, touch your ear to signal that the student should listen and then repeat his/her answer accenting what the student should have said. Part II: Expand to Include 'His' and 'Her' Teacher: (Model a question to yourself changing places in the room, or changing your voice to indicate that you are modeling. ) Is her name Jennifer? No, her name isnt Jennifer. Her name is Gertrude. Teacher: (Model a question to yourself changing places in the room, or changing your voice to indicate that you are modeling. ) Is his name John? No, his name isnt John. His name is Mark. (Make sure to accent the differences between her and his) Teacher: Is his name Gregory? (ask a student) Student(s): Yes, his name is Gregory. OR No, his name isnt Gregory. His name is Peter. Continue this exercise around the room with each of the students. If a student makes a mistake, touch your ear to signal that the student should listen and then repeat his/her answer accenting what the student should have said. Part III: Having Students Ask Questions Teacher: Is her name Maria? (ask a student) Teacher: Paolo, ask John a question. (Point from one student to the next indicating that he / she should ask a question thereby introducing the new teacher request ask a question, in the future you should then use this form instead of pointing to move away from the visual to the aural.) Student 1: Is his name Jack? Student 2: Yes, his name is Jack. OR No, his name isnt Jack. His name is Peter. Continue this exercise around the room with each of the students. Part IV: Possessive Pronouns Its a good idea to teach possessive pronouns together with possessive adjectives.   Teacher:  Is that book yours?  (ask yourself to model) Teacher: Yes, that book is mine. (Make sure to accent yours and mine) Alessandro ask Jennifer about her pencil.   Student 1:  Is that pencil yours? Student 2:  Yes, that pencil is mine.   Continue this exercise around the room with each of the students. Move on to his and hers in the same manner. Once completed, begin to mix the two forms together. First alternating between my and mine and then alternating between other forms. This exercise should be repeated a number of times.   Teacher: (holding up a book)  This is my book. The book is mine.   Write the two sentences on the board. Ask students to repeat the two sentences with various objects they have. Once finished with my and mine continue with your and yours, his and hers. Teacher:  That is your computer. The computer is yours. etc.

Agriculture and Development †Biology Essay

Agriculture and Development – Biology Essay Free Online Research Papers Agriculture and Development Biology Essay Agriculture is in many parts of the world the main source of food and income of households. The role that agriculture plays in development has been debated during the last decades and the views about it are very diverse. Today, many authors consider agriculture as an essential factor for development and an important instrument for poverty alleviation. In my opinion access to land and water is an indispensable condition to ensure the livelihood of the poor. The current market conditions and the economic liberalisation process make it difficult for small farmers to compete with the international sphere, which led many people to move out of agriculture. Also, the market-driven economy has serious environmental consequences, which leads to the investment in the research of more sustainable agriculture methods. The question is if poor farmers will be able to acquire the new technologies and to adapt themselves to the new market conditions. In this essay larger participation of the rural poor, particularly of women, in the research of new agriculture technologies appears as a necessary condition for development. The case of Ghana is chosen in this essay to provide examples of how the main learning points of Chris Garforth’s presentation can be applied to real situations in the developing world. 1. Different views about Agriculture and Development. The theory about the role of agriculture in development presents currently different versions, as it was seen in Chris Garforth’s POD presentation. For some authors agriculture is a provider of raw material for the rest of the economic sectors and it is seen as a mere contributor to fuel economic development. This simplistic vision contrast with that of those who see agriculture as a essential instrument for industrialisation, allowing the transfer of capital to urban areas, stimulating the market and, thus, resulting in economic development. According to Norton (2004), most of economic theories of the last 50 years support industrialisation as the basis of economic development. Many governments supporting this theory saw liberalisation of agricultural goods as the key for economic growth, without taking into account the effect of dependency that the new system would create. Imports from foreign countries and long-term subsides, which stopped the development of some industrial sectors, created in developing countries strong links of dependency on others more powerful countries. Norton (2004) presents the case of Argentina as an example of this, whose imports substitution become one of the main important reason for the economic crisis that it is suffering today. One of the hottest topics related to the study of the agriculture’s role in development is if agriculture growth contributes or not to poverty reduction. Doward (2004) stresses two different views between those who think that it is necessary to find new alternative routes to poverty alleviation, due to the risks and constraints associated to agriculture, and those who think that agriculture should play a crucial role in economic growth and poverty reduction. For Kydd (2002) smallholder agriculture has a strategic importance, even though if economic development will result in a decline of the agriculture GDP and employment. In other words, when economic development occurs and poverty is reduced a decline of the agricultural sector can be seen, especially reflected through a fall in the labour. In Ghana for example, one of the main problems of agriculture is labour shortages, that have been exacerbated in the past few years by the migration of people trying to overcome poverty by moving out from agriculture (Duncan and Howell, 1992). The current literature about agriculture and development considers agriculture as an essential mean of poverty alleviation in the Third World, where about 720 millions of poor people live in rural areas (World Bank, in Norton, 2004). Norton (2004) argues that agriculture policies are important for governments since agriculture is the main source of food and income for many households in developing countries while also being connected with other sectors of the economy. The government of Ghana for example, within its development program ‘Vision 2020’, considers agriculture as the basis for rural development and poverty alleviation. Its Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) recognises the importance that some crops, like cassava, have currently for the livelihood of smallholder farmers and calls for the identification of the most agricultural deprived areas, especially in Northern Ghana, to receive priority for resources allocation and development (FAO, 2004). In spite of it, and according to the IFAD (2001), the development assistance to agriculture has declined from 20 percent in the late 80s to 12 percent in the early 2000s. This, also, had negative consequences on the research of new agricultural techniques for development and poverty alleviation. This situation has been worsened by the present global trade relations and by the market-driven agricultural research. 2. The effects of the market on rural agriculture. The case of Ghana. The global economy and liberalisation has deep effects on agriculture, and especially on the economy of smallholders farmers in the Third World. New market arrangements have brought opportunities for some farmers, but also had negative impact on others, who can not compete with the low prices established by a liberalised trade. An example of this is the case of Ghana, which as many countries in Africa, suffered from a strong economic crisis during the 80s. The new international terms of trade and the increase of the world interest rates, together with internal causes (such as one of the worst drought periods of its history and political mismanagement) led to disastrous consequences on its agriculture. Ghana used to produce 37 percent of the world cocoa, which enormously decreased due to the imposition of high tax and to the fall of the cocoa world prices. This reduced the exports earning, which had strong effects on public expenditure and on investment in new infrastructures. The mos t affected by the crisis were small cocoa producers, who could not compete with the prices established by the international market (Duncan and Howell, 1992). Poor farmers not only have to compete with risks associated to natural phenomena (as drought, floods, etc.), but also with the high transaction costs derived from liberalisation which make them more vulnerable in the economic context (Omano and Farrington, 2004). International market arrangements greatly influence the rural poor livelihoods as it establishes the rules that may not allow them to play in the market. These rules are designed to benefit exclusively large commercial farmers, instead of rural smallholders farmers who have experienced a reduction in their incomes. Food prices are intimately connected to the world market in areas where the poor live. 3. Agriculture research for development. Smallholder farmers produce food which will be consumed by the poor, so rural agriculture is a key for the livelihoods of the majority of the world’s poorest people (Kydd, 2002). Therefore, agriculture is a central question of development and it needs the adoption of convenient technologies for the different rural population’s needs. The idea is that smallholder farmers will be able to increase their capacities to improve their living standard through their own efforts. Thus, rather than addressing the symptoms should be better to address the causes of poverty through the application of more appropriate agriculture methods to rural farmers. The commercialisation of agriculture has also led to a set of agriculture practices completely different from those of the last century. These changes are basically imposed by the new market demands and by the producers’ attempts to answer it. The new agricultural patterns involved a change in the research methods carried out by private organisations searching for more efficient production practices. In this context, advances in biothecnology in the last decades have focused on profitable markets, especially orientated to large commercial agriculture. According to Norton, (2004), irrigation alone cannot be the only basis to supply food to an increasing world population. Important advances have been made in GMO as a new alternative to food production in order to feed future generations. But the questions is to which extent GMO technologies developed for large farmers will be adopted by small farmers at low cost (Kydd, 2002). Poor farmers in the developing world have been offered little possibilities to adopt new technologies on time because they did not have the right market conditions. This is the reason why in the last years most rural farmers did not enjoy the benefits of the advances in agricultural technology. This situation has led to think about new systems more relevant to smallholder farmers and guided by their demands. The present trend is that farmers and researchers work together in the development of new agriculture technologies. Norton (2004) calls it as â€Å"participatory technology development†, where the farmers acquire the control and play a crucial role on agricultural development. Like in the years before industrialisation, small farmers have again in his hands the tools for technological change in agriculture, although this new participatory process is still in its development stage. In Ghana some programs – such as the Agriculture Services Sector Investment Programme (AGSSIP) are designed to empower and strengthen grassroots organisations, such as co-operatives and farmer groups, in order to provide better services to their members and to facilitate technology adoption, by improving access to inputs and facilitating marketing. The objective of AGSSIP is that rural people earn their own livelihoods through agriculture as a way of poverty alleviation (FAO, 2004). 4. Gender considerations. Due to the essential role that women are playing today on the economy of the household in developing countries, agriculture development research cannot ignore gender issues when designing new programs. Women in many countries produce a large part of the food crops of the households and they are essential for the family’s food security (IFAD, 2001). In the case of South of Ghana for example, with the advance of commercial farming, particularly of cocoa, the production of food crop became women’s sole responsibility, which was seen before as an exclusive men’s task. Also, with the migration of men, the number of household headed by women increased. By contrast, in the North where crop farming possibilities were more limited and most of families were influenced by the Islam culture, the role of women remained confined to household tasks (Duncan and Howell, 1991). Development workers in the last decades used to consult only male farmers in their development research, leaving a gap in the research programs as they did not take into consideration women’s knowledge, in spite of their contribution on agriculture. However, today it is said that poverty alleviation and hunger will significantly depend on the extent to which women have access to natural resources (land and water) and to the decision-making process (Norton, 2004). 5. Land and water management. Sustainable Agriculture. The access to land and water has been a historical source of conflicts. For the rural poor the access to these natural resources have been key for their subsistence and still it is in many areas of the developing world. In a global social context with a growing population, new systems to improve the access to arable land and pure water are continuously being studied. According to Norton (2004), about 2.4 billion people depend on irrigated agriculture for jobs, food and income. In the past, water was used as an infinite resource, but today the main aquifers in the world are being over-exploited putting in danger the livelihoods of millions of people. Many irrigation programs have not being efficient and in some cases have contributed to the depletion of the water resources and the degradation of some systems. Today the water development efforts are focused on three areas: efficiency, equity and sustainability. Involving farmers in the design of water management policies become a necessary requisite for successful development (Norton, 2004). Land tenure is another key factor for the wellbeing of the rural household, especially since –according to the World Bank (World Development Report 1998-99, Chris Garforth’s POD Outline for Session 3)- the world’s percentages of arable land per head is currently falling. The extent to which an individual or family can access to land will determine their living standard. People who have access to land have more opportunities for sustainable livelihoods, so in this context, customary forms of holding and managing land strongly influence policy. An efficient land management would obtain maximum productivity of land while respecting the traditional and ecologically sound indigenous knowledge about land management, pest and diseases. In the last few decades, land management has not been sustainable due to the attempts to increase production at expense of the environment. Intensive agriculture compromises the interests of future generations in many ways: polluting soil, water and atmosphere, salinity and irrigation, loss of biodiversity and putting in danger people’s health trough the abuse of fertilisers and pesticides (Shepherd, 1998). Although the use of pesticides has a minimal impact on people from developed countries, it emerges as a problem in developing nations, where its consumption is at low levels but highly concentrated. Children are particularly sensitive to the use of toxic products. According to Norton, (2004) there are 10.000 deaths per year related to use of pesticides. Due to this situation, research in agriculture are focused in developing new ways of feeding the world without damaging the environment and people’s health. The recommendations about more sustainable practices reject the use of industrial production methods, the involvement of farmers in the research and the incorporation of active resource conservation methods (Sepherd, 1998). But the reality is that still the global market arrangements represent important constraints to sustainable agriculture. Even when have been attempts toward more ecological practices, such as organic farms, the question is whether rural people will be able to adopt new methods to compete in the market. It will need the provision of subsidies to the rural smallholders, and particularly in those areas where the use of fertilisers is very high. Also, it will be necessary to transfer to the poor knowledge and infrastructure, and providing them with the right conditions in the market (Shepherd, 1998). Conclusion. Agriculture is still the main source of income of many rural areas in the Third World, so it should be the centre of programs for development. The extent to people have access to land and water sources will determine the wellbeing of rural families. Agriculture, therefore is still an essential factor to poverty alleviation and development. When a country can be self-reliant in its own raw materials for export and industrialisation it is ensured part of its own development. The dependency links that developing countries have with more powerful nations, since their colonial era, it is one of the deep-rooted causes of its underdevelopment. The current international market arrangements and the liberalisation process have a strong impact on the rural farmer. They cannot compete with the cheap prices imposed by large commercial farmers. New alternatives for the poor, like fair-trade, should be supported by national governments and international organisations, as WTO and the IMF. Prices of production should be real according to the production cost for small farmers. The new advances in technologies for sustainable agriculture will not be effective if they cannot be adopted by rural farmers in the Third World. Its adoption requires to provide them with the right market conditions, knowledge and infrastructures, otherwise rural people will keep exploiting in unsustainable ways the local natural resources, as the only way of survival. Sustainable agriculture only will be possible if it takes into account rural farmers’ knowledge about land management. Therefore, their participation is a necessary requisite in the research of new agriculture technologies. Moreover, women’s role in agriculture is an essential factor which has to be taken into consideration when designing new development programs for agriculture development. References. Bibliography. Duncan, A. Howell, J. (1992). Structural Adjustment and the African Farmer. London and Portsmouth: ODI, James Currey Ltd. Heinemann Educational Books, Inc. Garforth, C. (2004). POD Outline for Session 3: Agriculture, Economic Growth and Rural Development. Perspective on Development. International and Rural Development Department. Reading University. Norton, R. D. (2004). Agricultural Development Policy. Concepts and Experiences. Chichester: FAO John Wiley Sons, Ltd. Sepherd, A. (1998). Sustainable Rural Development. London New York: MacMillann Press Ltd. St. Martin’s Press, Inc. Webs. Doward, A. (2004). Agricultural growth, poverty and institutions: rethinking policy. id21.org/society/s5cad1g1.html (Viewed in April 2004) FAO (2004). Ghana. Case Study. fao.org/waicent/portal/outreach/livelihoods/en/ghana-en.html (Viewed in April 2004) IFAD (2001). Rural Poverty Report 2001: The Challenge of Ending Rural Poverty. ifad.org/poverty/index.htm (Viewed in April 2004) Kydd, J. (2002). ODI. Agriculture and Rural Livelihoods: Is Globalisation opening or blocking path out or Rural Poverty? Network Paper No. 121. odi.org/uk/agreu/papers/agrenpaper/121.pdf (Viewed in April 2004) Omano, S. W. Farrington, J. (2004). ODI. Policy Research and African Agriculture: Time for a Dose of Reality? No. 90. http//:www.odi.org.uk/nrp/90.pdf (Viewed in April 2004) Research Papers on Agriculture and Development - Biology EssayPETSTEL analysis of IndiaInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaOpen Architechture a white paperDefinition of Export QuotasRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andGenetic EngineeringBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfTwilight of the UAW